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    Convergence of Empires: The Gandhara Civilization

    Written by: Mahnoor Fatima
    Posted on: April 01, 2020 | | 中文

    Jaulian Stupa and Monastery in Taxila (photo credits to Jun Liu on Flickr)

    What connects Mardan, Charsadda, Taxila to major cities like Peshawar and Rawalpindi? These seemingly discreet towns were once the ruling cities of an ancient civilization, which began from about 5th Century BCE to 11th Century CE. Different civilisations, cultures and empires left their mark on the land and history of the Indian Subcontinent. Gandhara is an ancient civilization situated in a triangular region, which is now divided between modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. It starts from Dir and Swat, goes into Peshawar, and stretches to Kandahar, Afghanistan (which some believe got its name from Gandhara) on the West and the Pothohar Plateau on the East.

    Map of the Gandhara Region

    Historical accounts vary on the meaning behind the name ‘Gandhara’, and how this civilization originated. While some believe that the word means ‘Land of Fragrance’, the area is not historically recorded to have particularly fragrant flowers or spices. A more likely answer is that ‘Gandhara’ means ‘Mound of Water’, due to its location between the River Indus and River Kabul. Records of Gandhara and Gandharis can be seen as early as the Ramayana (8th – 4th Century BC) and the original Vedic Texts (1500 – 1200 BCE).

    While it is difficult to detail the different waves of invaders that came and ruled in the Gandhara region during this period, each used it as a gateway into what is now the Indian Subcontinent. It was originally a part of the Achaemenid Empire (556 BC), until Alexander the Great conquered it, crossing Taxila to enter Punjab. Taxila then became the capital of the Mauryan Empire when the Buddhist Chandragupta Maurya conquered the region. Next, the Indo-Greeks from Bactria (modern-day North Afghanistan) invaded, followed by the scytho-Parthians of Central Asia. The Gandhara Civilization’s apex came with the Kushans (1st – 5th Century CE), and its twilight saw invasions by the White Huns and Hindu Guptas.

    The Kushan Empire

    Although the mythic origins of the Gandhara Civilization can be found in Hindu texts, it was Buddhism that fundamentally changed the land and its people. It brought a new religion, a new philosophy, and new expressions of art. The Indo-Greek art is a combination of Indian, Greek, Syrian and Persian styles, which came about in the latter half of the civilization. Often, this art was inspired by Buddhist teachings and philosophy, and used stucco and mica schist as mediums. Perhaps the most famous example of Gandharan art is the statue of Fasting Buddha, which can be found in the Lahore Museum.

    Fasting Buddha at Lahore Museum

    But the “Greek” part comes from the Hellenistic influence left behind from Alexander’s era. Greek coins of his time have often been found at the sites, and some concepts of Greek masculinity and form can be seen in Gandharan statutes.

    A Bodhisattva Sculpture in Greek Form

    The two particular cities of Taxila and Peshawar were major hubs of trade, culture, and education in this civilization. Each invader would either choose Taxila (Takshashilla), Peshawar (Purushapura) as the capital cities of their empire, due to their existing infrastructure and strategic importance. Taxila, in particular, was home to some of the oldest public universities and monasteries in the world, whose well-developed archaeological sites are well preserved to this day, such as Takht-i-Bahi, Jaulian Stupa and Monastery, and Dharmarajika Stupa and Monastery.

    Takht-i-Bahi (photo credits to Asian Tribune)

    Early Chinese accounts have significantly contributed to the historic understandings of Gandhara Buddhism. It was during the Kushan era that Chinese and Central Asian traders visited Gandhara for trade and religious knowledge, often venturing long distances across mountains. The most famous were Faxian (400 CE) and Xuanzang (627 – 640 CE) who wrote extremely detailed accounts of the shrines, locals and monasteries. Some scholars have even gone so far to say that it was through Gandhara that Buddhism spread to China, directly through the travelers, and indirectly through the knowledge brought back by the Chinese monks.

    While Buddhism traveled from India to Central Asia, Islam entered the opposite way into India, through Gandhara. Ultimately Mahmud of Ghazni conquered the area in 1021 AD, and expanded eastwards. With the arrival of Islam in the Subcontinent and the eventual addition of Gandhara regions to the Mughal Empire, the ancient secrets of Gandhara remained sealed. It was not until the British Raj that the relics of this vast and extensive region were discovered, and excavation efforts are still ongoing.

    The Gandhara Civilization should not be forgotten as it connects the regions of South Asia with each other, as well as Central Asia and Europe. It started as early as, if not earlier than, the Silk Route itself. Gandhara plays an important part in understanding how different peoples and cultures have flourished within South Asia.

    An Indo-Greek Coin of Menander II (photo credit to Coin India)

    But on a simpler level, Gandhara is incredibly fascinating because its ancient relics have survived thousands of years, revealing what pre-modern, Pre-Islamic life was like in the Subcontinent. Those who wish to visit Gandhara ruins, can find relics in museums and historical sites in the lower Swat Valley, Peshawar and Taxila.

    A Gandhara Stupa Site in Swat (photo credits to Discovering Pakistan)


    As the new year begins, let us also start anew. I’m delighted to extend, on behalf of the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and in my own name, new year’s greeting and sincere wishes to YOULIN magazine’s staff and readers.

    Only in hard times can courage and perseverance be manifested. Only with courage can we live to the fullest. 2020 was an extraordinary year. Confronted by the COVID-19 pandemic, China and Pakistan supported each other and took on the challenge in solidarity. The ironclad China-Pakistan friendship grew stronger as time went by. The China Pakistan Economic Corridor projects advanced steadily in difficult times, become a standard-bearer project of the Belt and Road Initiative in balancing pandemic prevention and project achievement. The handling capacity of the Gwadar Port has continued to rise and Afghanistan transit trade through the port has officially been launched. The Karakoram Highway Phase II upgrade project is fully open to traffic. The Lahore Orange Line project has been put into operation. The construction of Matiari-Lahore HVDC project was fully completed. A batch of green and clean energy projects, such as the Kohala and Azad Pattan hydropower plants have been substantially promoted. Development agreement for the Rashakai SEZ has been signed. The China-Pakistan Community of Shared Future has become closer and closer.

    Reviewing the past and looking to the future, we are confident to write a brilliant new chapter. The year 2021 is the 100th birthday of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the 70th anniversary of the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and Pakistan. The 100-year journey of CPC surges forward with great momentum and China-Pakistan relationship has flourished in the past 70 years. Standing at a new historic point, China is willing to work together with Pakistan to further implement the consensus reached by the leaders of the two countries, connect the CPEC cooperation with the vision of the “Naya Pakistan”, promote the long-term development of the China-Pakistan All-weather Strategic Cooperative Partnership with love, dedication and commitment. Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the founding father of Pakistan said, “We are going through fire. The sunshine has yet to come.” Yes, Pakistan’s best days are ahead, China will stand with Pakistan firmly all the way.

    YOULIN magazine is dedicated to promoting cultural exchanges between China and Pakistan and is a window for Pakistani friends to learn about China, especially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. It is hoped that with the joint efforts of China and Pakistan, YOULIN can listen more to the voices of readers in China and Pakistan, better play its role as a bridge to promote more effectively people-to-people bond.

    Last but not least, I would like to wish all the staff and readers of YOULIN a warm and prosper year in 2021.

    Nong Rong Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of
    The People’s Republic of China to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
    January 2021